12" Virgin of Loreto Sitting on House With Baby

Representation of the Christian icon Mary

Our Mother of Perpetual Help, Icon of the Virgin Mary, 16th century. St. Catherine's Monastery in the Sinai.

The Salus Populi Romani icon, overpainted in the 13th century, but going back to an underlying original dated to the 5th or 6th century.

A Madonna (Italian: [maˈdɔn.na]) is a representation of Mary, either lonely or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Cosmic and Orthodox churches.^[1] The word is from Italian ma donna 'my lady', albeit archaic. The Madonna and Child blazon is very prevalent in Christian iconography, divided into many traditional subtypes especially in Eastern Orthodox iconography, often known later the location of a notable icon of the blazon, such every bit the Theotokos of Vladimir, Agiosoritissa, Blachernitissa, etc., or descriptive of the depicted posture, as in Hodegetria, Eleusa, etc.

The term Madonna in the sense of "picture show or statue of the Virgin Mary" enters English language usage in the 17th century, primarily in reference to works of the Italian Renaissance. In an Eastern Orthodox context, such images are typically known every bit Theotokos. "Madonna" may be by and large used of representations of Mary, with or without the infant Jesus, is the focus and central figure of the epitome, possibly flanked or surrounded past angels or saints. Other types of Marian imagery accept a narrative context, depicting scenes from the Life of the Virgin, e.k. the Declaration to Mary, are not typically called "Madonna".

The earliest depictions of Mary date to Early Christian art of the (2nd to 3rd centuries, establish in the Catacombs of Rome.^[ii] These are in a narrative context. The classical "Madonna" or "Theotokos" imagery develops from the 5th century, equally Marian devotion rose to dandy importance after the Quango of Ephesus formally affirmed her status as "Mother of God or Theotokos ("God-bearer") in 431.^[3] The Theotokos iconography as it developed in the sixth to 8th century rose to great importance in the loftier medieval flow (12th to 14th centuries) both in the Eastern Orthodox and in the Latin spheres.

According to a tradition first recorded in the 8th century, and still potent in the Eastern Church, the iconography of images of Mary goes back to a portrait drawn from life past Luke the Evangelist, with a number of icons (such equally the Panagia Portaitissa) claimed to either represent this original icon or to exist a direct copy of it. In the Western tradition, depictions of the Madonna were greatly diversified by Renaissance masters such as Duccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, Caravaggio, and Rubens (and further by certain modernists such as Salvador Dalí and Henry Moore), while Eastern Orthodox iconography adheres more than closely to the inherited traditional types.

Terminology [edit]

Liturgy depicting Mary as powerful intercessor (such equally the Akathist) was brought from Greek into Latin tradition in the eighth century. The Greek title of Δεσποινα (Despoina) was adopted as Latin Domina "Lady". The medieval Italian Ma Donna pronounced [maˈdɔnna] ("My Lady") reflects Mea Domina, while Nostra Domina (δεσποινίς ἡμῶν) was adopted in French, as Nostre Dame "Our Lady".^[four]

These names signal both the increased importance of the cult of the virgin and the prominence of art in service to Marian devotion during the late medieval menstruum. During the 13th century, especially,^{[ citation needed ]} with the increasing influence of chivalry and aristocratic civilization on poetry, song and the visual arts, the Madonna is represented every bit the queen of Heaven, often enthroned. Madonna was meant more to remind people of the theological concept which is placing such a high value on purity or virginity. This is also represented by the colour of her clothing. The color blue symbolized purity, virginity, and royalty.^{[ citation needed ]}

While the Italian term Madonna paralleled English Our Lady in late medieval Marian devotion, it was imported as an art historical term into English usage in the 1640s, designating specifically the Marian art of the Italian Renaissance. In this sense, "a Madonna", or "a Madonna with Child" is used of specific works of fine art, historically mostly of Italian works. A "Madonna" may alternatively be called "Virgin" or "Our Lady", but "Madonna" is not typically practical to eastern works; eastward.k. the Theotokos of Vladimir may in English language be called "Our Lady of Vladimir", while information technology is less usual, but not unheard of, to refer to it equally the "Madonna of Vladimir".^[5]

Modes of representation [edit]

In that location are several singled-out types of representation of the Madonna.

One type of Madonna shows Mary alone (without the child Jesus), and standing, generally glorified and with a gesture of prayer, benediction or prophesy. This type of image occurs in a number of ancient apsidal mosaics.
Full-length standing images of the Madonna more frequently include the infant Jesus, who turns towards the viewer or raises his paw in benediction. The most famous Byzantine image, the Hodegetria was originally of this blazon, though virtually copies are at half-length. This type of image occurs frequently in sculpture and may be institute in fragile ivory carvings, in limestone on the key door posts of many cathedrals, and in polychrome wooden or plaster casts in most every Catholic Church. At that place are a number of famous paintings that depict the Madonna in this manner, notably the Sistine Madonna by Raphael.
The "Madonna enthroned" is a blazon of epitome that dates from the Byzantine period and was used widely in Medieval and Renaissance times. These representations of the Madonna and Child often take the course of big altarpieces. They besides occur as frescoes and apsidal mosaics. In Medieval examples the Madonna is often accompanied past angels who support the throne, or by rows of saints. In Renaissance painting, particularly Loftier Renaissance painting, the saints may be grouped informally in a type of composition known as a Sacra conversazione.
The Madonna of humility refers to portrayals in which the Madonna is sitting on the ground, or sitting upon a low cushion. She may be holding the Child Jesus in her lap.^[half-dozen] This mode was a product of Franciscan piety,^[vii] ^[viii] and perhaps due to Simone Martini. It spread quickly through Italy and by 1375 examples began to appear in Spain, French republic and Germany. It was the near popular among the styles of the early Trecento artistic period.^[9]
Half-length Madonnas are the course most often taken past painted icons of the Eastern Orthodox Church, where the subject matter is highly formulated and then that each painting expresses one detail attribute of the "Female parent of God". Half-length paintings of the Madonna and Child are as well common in Italian Renaissance painting, especially in Venice.
The seated "Madonna and Child" is a style of paradigm that became particularly popular during the 15th century in Florence and was imitated elsewhere. These representations are ordinarily of a small size suitable for a small altar or domestic use. They ordinarily show Mary property the babe Jesus in an informal and maternal way. These paintings often include symbolic reference to the Passion of Christ.
The "Doting Madonna" is a type popular during the Renaissance. These images, unremarkably small and intended for personal devotion, show Mary kneeling in adoration of the Christ Child. Many such images were produced in glazed terracotta every bit well equally paint.
The nursing Madonna refers to portrayals of the Madonna breastfeeding the babe Jesus.
The iconography of the Woman of the Apocalypse is applied to marian portraiture in a diversity of ways over fourth dimension, depending on the interpretation of the relevant Biblical passage.^[ten]

History [edit]

Painting of the Madonna and Child by an anonymous Italian, get-go half of 19th century

The earliest representation of the Madonna and Child may be the wall painting in the Crypt of Priscilla, Rome, in which the seated Madonna suckles the Child, who turns his head to gaze at the spectator.^[eleven]

The primeval consequent representations of Female parent and Child were developed in the Eastern Empire, where despite an iconoclastic strain in culture that rejected physical representations equally "idols", respect for venerated images was expressed in the repetition of a narrow range of highly conventionalized types, the repeated images familiar as icons (Greek "image"). On a visit to Constantinople in 536, Pope Agapetus was accused of existence opposed to the veneration of the theotokos and to the portrayal of her prototype in churches.^[12] Eastern examples prove the Madonna enthroned, even wearing the closed Byzantine pearl-encrusted crown with pendants, with the Christ Child on her lap.^[13]

In the W, hieratic Byzantine models were closely followed in the Early Middle Ages, but with the increased importance of the cult of the Virgin in the 12th and 13th centuries a broad variety of types developed to satisfy a flood of more intensely personal forms of piety. In the usual Gothic and Renaissance formulas the Virgin Mary sits with the Infant Jesus on her lap, or enfolded in her artillery. In earlier representations the Virgin is enthroned, and the Child may be fully aware, raising his manus to offering approving. In a 15th-century Italian variation, a infant John the Baptist looks on. The socalled Madonna della seggiola shows both of them: the Virgin embraces the baby Jesus, nigh John the Baptist.

Tardily Gothic sculptures of the Virgin and Child may show a continuing virgin with the kid in her arms. Iconography varies between public images and private images supplied on a smaller calibration and meant for personal devotion in the chamber: the Virgin suckling the Child (such as the Madonna Litta) is an image largely bars to private devotional icons.

Early on images [edit]

There was a great expansion of the cult of Mary subsequently the Council of Ephesus in 431, when her condition as Theotokos ("God-bearer") was confirmed; this had been a subject of some controversy until then, though mainly for reasons to exercise with arguments over the nature of Christ. In mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432–440, just later the council, she is not still shown with a halo, and she is also not shown in Nativity scenes at this date, though she is included in the Adoration of the Magi.

By the next century the iconic depiction of the Virgin enthroned conveying the infant Christ was established, as in the case from the only group of icons surviving from this period, at Saint Catherine'due south Monastery in Arab republic of egypt. This type of depiction, with subtly irresolute differences of emphasis, has remained the mainstay of depictions of Mary to the present day. The prototype at Mount Sinai succeeds in combining two aspects of Mary described in the Magnificat, her humility and her exaltation in a higher place other humans, and has the Paw of God above, up to which the archangels look. An early icon of the Virgin as queen is in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705–707 past the kneeling figure of Pope John Vii, a notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the baby Christ reaches his paw. This type was long confined to Rome. The roughly half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th–8th century course the bulk of the representations surviving from this catamenia; "isolated images of the Madonna and Child ... are so common ... to the nowadays day in Catholic and Orthodox tradition, that it is hard to recover a sense of the novelty of such images in the early on Center Ages, at least in western Europe".^[fourteen]

At this period the iconography of the Nativity was taking the grade, centred on Mary, that it has retained up to the present day in Eastern Orthodoxy, and on which Western depictions remained based until the Loftier Middle Ages. Other narrative scenes for Byzantine cycles on the Life of the Virgin were existence evolved, relying on apocyphal sources to fill up in her life earlier the Proclamation to Mary. By this time the political and economic collapse of the Western Roman Empire meant that the Western, Latin, church was unable to compete in the evolution of such sophisticated iconography, and relied heavily on Byzantine developments.

The primeval surviving paradigm in a Western illuminated manuscript of the Madonna and Kid comes from the Book of Kells of about 800 ^[15] (at that place is a like carved image on the hat of St Cuthbert'due south bury of 698) and, though magnificently decorated in the style of Insular art, the drawing of the figures can only be described every bit rather crude compared to Byzantine piece of work of the period. This was in fact an unusual inclusion in a Gospel book, and images of the Virgin were slow to announced in large numbers in manuscript fine art until the book of hours was devised in the 13th century.

The Madonna of humility past Domenico di Bartolo, 1433, is considered 1 of the nigh innovative devotional images from the early Renaissance.^[16]

Byzantine influence on the West [edit]

Very few early on images of the Virgin Mary survive, though the depiction of the Madonna has roots in aboriginal pictorial and sculptural traditions that informed the earliest Christian communities throughout Europe, Northern Africa and the Middle East. Important to Italian tradition are Byzantine icons, peculiarly those created in Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital of the longest, indelible medieval culture whose icons participated in civic life and were historic for their miraculous properties. Byzantium (324–1453) saw itself every bit the true Rome, if Greek-speaking, Christian empire with colonies of Italians living among its citizens, participating in Crusades at the borders of its state, and ultimately, plundering its churches, palaces and monasteries of many of its treasures. Later in the Middle Ages, the Cretan school was the primary source of icons for the West, and the artists there could adapt their mode to Western iconography when required.

While theft is one way that Byzantine images made their way West to Italy, the relationship between Byzantine icons and Italian images of the Madonna is far more rich and complicated. Byzantine art played a long, critical role in Western Europe, particularly when Byzantine territories included parts of Eastern Europe, Greece and much of Italy itself. Byzantine manuscripts, ivories, gold, argent and luxurious textiles were distributed throughout the Due west. In Byzantium, Mary's usual title was the Theotokos or Female parent of God, rather than the Virgin Mary and it was believed that salvation was delivered to the faithful at the moment of God'southward incarnation. That theological concept takes pictorial form in the paradigm of Mary holding her infant son.

Still, what is most relevant to the Byzantine heritage of the Madonna is twofold. First, the earliest surviving contained images of the Virgin Mary are found in Rome, the eye of Christianity in the medieval Due west. Ane is a valued possession of Santa Maria in Trastevere, one of the many Roman churches defended to the Virgin Mary. Another, a splintered, repainted ghost of its old cocky, is venerated at the Pantheon, that peachy architectural wonder of the Ancient Roman Empire, that was rededicated to Mary as an expression of the Church's triumph. Both evoke Byzantine tradition in terms of their medium, that is, the technique and materials of the paintings, in that they were originally painted in tempera (egg yolk and ground pigments) on wooden panels. In this respect, they share the Ancient Roman heritage of Byzantine icons. 2nd, they share iconography, or subject thing. Each image stresses the maternal role that Mary plays, representing her in relationship to her baby son. It is difficult to gauge the dates of the cluster of these earlier images, however, they seem to be primarily works of the 7th and 8th centuries.

Later on medieval menstruum [edit]

Information technology was not until the revival of monumental panel painting in Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries, that the image of the Madonna gains prominence outside of Rome, especially throughout Tuscany. While members of the mendicant orders of the Franciscan and Dominican Orders are some of the first to committee panels representing this subject matter, such works quickly became popular in monasteries, parish churches, and homes. Some images of the Madonna were paid for by lay organizations called confraternities, who met to sing praises of the Virgin in chapels found within the newly reconstructed, spacious churches that were sometimes dedicated to her. Paying for such a work might also be seen as a form of devotion. Its expense registers in the use of thin sheets of real golden leaf in all parts of the panel that are non covered with paint, a visual analogue not just to the costly sheaths that medieval goldsmiths used to decorate altars, simply also a means of surrounding the image of the Madonna with illumination from oil lamps and candles. Even more precious is the bright blue pall colored with lapis lazuli, a rock imported from Transitional islamic state of afghanistan.

This is the case of one of the virtually famous, innovative and monumental works that Duccio executed for the Laudesi at Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Frequently the scale of the work indicates a great deal about its original function. Oftentimes referred to as the Rucellia Madonna (c. 1285), the panel painting towers over the spectator, offering a visual focus for members of the Laudesi confraternity to get together before it every bit they sang praises to the image. Duccio made an fifty-fifty grander image of the Madonna enthroned for the high altar of the cathedral of Siena, his dwelling house boondocks. Known as the Maesta (1308–1311), the image represents the pair every bit the heart of a densely populated court in the central part of a complexly carpentered piece of work that lifts the court upon a predella (pedestal of altarpiece) of narrative scenes and standing figures of prophets and saints. In turn, a modestly scaled paradigm of the Madonna as a one-half-length figure belongings her son in a memorably intimate depiction, is to exist found in the National Gallery of London. This is clearly made for the private devotion of a Christian wealthy enough to hire one of the most important Italian artists of his day.

The privileged owner need not get to Church to say his prayers or plead for salvation; all he or she had to practise was open the shutters of the tabernacle in an act of private revelation. Duccio and his contemporaries inherited early pictorial conventions that were maintained, in function, to tie their ain works to the dominance of tradition.

Despite all of the innovations of painters of the Madonna during the 13th and 14th centuries, Mary can usually be recognized past virtue of her attire. Customarily when she is represented as a youthful female parent of her newborn child, she wears a deeply saturated blue pall over a red garment. This mantle typically covers her caput, where sometimes, ane might see a linen, or later, transparent silk veil. She holds the Christ Kid, or Baby Jesus, who shares her halo as well as her regal bearing. Often her gaze is directed out at the viewer, serving every bit an intercessor, or conduit for prayers that flow from the Christian, to her, and only so, to her son. However, late medieval Italian artists also followed the trends of Byzantine icon painting, developing their own methods of depicting the Madonna. Sometimes, the Madonna's complex bond with her tiny child takes the course of a close, intimate moment of tenderness steeped in sorrow where she only has eyes for him.

While the focus of this entry currently stresses the depiction of the Madonna in panel painting, her image likewise appears in landscape ornamentation, whether mosaics or fresco painting on the exteriors and interior of sacred buildings. She is constitute high above the apse, or due east end of the church where the liturgy is historic in the West. She is also found in sculpted grade, whether minor ivories for private devotion, or large sculptural reliefs and free-standing sculpture. Equally a participant in sacred drama, her image inspires one of the virtually important fresco cycles in all of Italian painting: Giotto'south narrative cycle in the Arena Chapel, next to the Scrovegni family'south palace in Padua. This program dates to the kickoff decade of the 14th century.

Italian artists of the 15th century onward are indebted to traditions established in the 13th and 14th centuries in their representation of the Madonna.

Renaissance [edit]

While the 15th and 16th centuries were a time when Italian painters expanded their repertoire to include historical events, independent portraits and mythological bailiwick matter, Christianity retained a strong hold on their careers. Most works of art from this era are sacred. While the range of religious subject matter included subjects from the Former Testament and images of saints whose cults date later on the codified of the Bible, the Madonna remained a ascendant field of study in the iconography of the Renaissance.

Some of the most eminent 16th-century Italian painters to turn to this subject were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael,^{[annotation 1]} Giorgione, Giovanni Bellini and Titian. They developed on the foundations of 15th-century Marian images by Fra Angelico, Fra Filippo Lippi, Mantegna and Piero della Francesca in particular, among countless others. The bailiwick was every bit popular in Early Netherlandish painting and that of the residuum of Northern Europe.

The subject retaining the greatest power on all of these men remained the maternal bond, even though other subjects, especially the Declaration, and later the Immaculate Formulation, led to a greater number of paintings that represented Mary alone, without her son. As a commemorative image, the Pietà became an of import field of study, newly freed from its onetime office in narrative cycles, in function, an outgrowth of popular devotional statues in Northern Europe. Traditionally, Mary is depicted expressing compassion, grief and dearest, usually in highly charged, emotional works of art fifty-fifty though the about famous, early work by Michelangelo stifles signs of mourning. The tenderness an ordinary mother might experience towards her beloved kid is captured, evoking the moment when she first held her infant son Christ. The spectator, after all, is meant to understand, to share in the despair of the mother who holds the torso of her crucified son.

Modern images [edit]

In some European countries, such as Germany, Italia and Poland sculptures of the Madonna are found on the outside of city houses and buildings, or along the roads in small enclosures.

In Frg, such a statue placed on the exterior of a building is called a Hausmadonna. Some date back to the Eye Ages, while some are notwithstanding being made today. Ordinarily found on the level of the second floor or higher, and often on the corner of a house, such sculptures were found in great numbers in many cities; Mainz, for example, was supposed to have had more 200 of them before World State of war II.^[19] The variety in such statues is as swell equally in other Madonna images; ane finds Madonnas belongings grapes (in reference to the Song of Songs 1:14, translated as "My lover is to me a cluster of henna blossoms" in the NIV), "immaculate" Madonnas in pure, perfect white without child or accessories, and Madonnas with roses symbolizing her life adamant by the mysteries of faith.^[twenty]

In Italy, the roadside Madonna is a common sight both on the side of buildings and along roads in small-scale enclosures. These are expected to bring spiritual relief to people who pass them.^[21] Some Madonnas statues are placed around Italian towns and villages as a matter of protection, or as a commemoration of a reported miracle.^[22]

In the 1920s, the Daughters of the American Revolution placed statues called the Madonna of the Trail from coast to declension, marking the path of the sometime National Road and the Santa Fe Trail.^[23]

Throughout his life, the painter Ray Martìn Abeyta created works inspired by the Cusco School style of Madonna painting, creating a hybrid of traditional and contemporary Latino subject affair representing the colonialist encounters betwixt Europeans and Mesoamericans.^[24] ^[25]

In 2015 iconographer Marker Dukes created the icon Our Lady of Ferguson, depicting the Madonna and child, in relation to the Shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri.^[26]

Islamic view [edit]

The first important run into betwixt Islam and the paradigm of the Madonna is said to have happened during the Prophet Muhammad's conquest of Mecca. At the culmination of his mission, in 629 CE, Muhammad conquered Mecca with a Muslim army, with his first activity being the "cleansing" or "purifying" of the Kaaba, wherein he removed all the pre-Islamic pagan images and idols from inside the temple. Co-ordinate to reports nerveless by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad did, however, protectively put his hand over a painting of Mary and Jesus, and a fresco of Abraham in order to keep them from being effaced.^[27] ^[28] In the words of the historian Barnaby Rogerson, "Muhammad raised his paw to protect an icon of the Virgin and Child and a painting of Abraham, but otherwise his companions cleared the interior of its clutter of votive treasures, cult implements, statuettes and hanging charms."^[29]

The Islamic scholar Martin Lings narrated the issue thus in his biography of the Prophet: "Christians sometimes came to do accolade to the Sanctuary of Abraham, and they were made welcome like all the rest. Moreover one Christian had been allowed and even encouraged to paint an icon of the Virgin Mary and the kid Christ on an inside wall of the Ka'bah, where it sharply contrasted with all the other paintings. But Quraysh were more or less insensitive to this contrast: for them it was just a question of increasing the multitude of idols by some other two; and it was partly their tolerance that made them then impenetrable.... Apart from the icon of the Virgin Mary and the child Jesus, and a painting of an old human being, said to exist Abraham, the walls within had been covered with pictures of pagan deities. Placing his hand protectively over the icon, the Prophet told Uthman to see that all the other paintings, except that of Abraham, were effaced."^[30]

Notable types and individual works [edit]

At that place are a large number of articles on individual works of various sorts in Category:Virgin Mary in fine art and its sub-category. See also the incomplete List of depictions of the Virgin and Kid. The term "Madonna" is oft applied to representations of Mary that were not created past Italians. A pocket-size selection of examples include:

Golden Madonna of Essen, the primeval big-scale sculptural example in Western Europe and a precedent for the polychrome wooden processional sculptures of Romanesque France, a type known as Throne of Wisdom.
Madonna of humility depicting a Madonna sitting on the ground, or low cushions
Madonna and Child, a painting past Duccio di Buoninsegna, from around the year 1300.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa (Czarna Madonna or Matka Boska Częstochowska in Polish) icon, which was, according to fable, painted by St. Luke the Evangelist on a cypress tabular array elevation from the house of the Holy Family.
Madonna and Child with Flowers, perhaps 1 of 2 works begun past Leonardo da Vinci.
Madonna Eleusa (of tenderness) has been depicted both in the Eastern and Western churches.
Madonna of the Steps, a relief by Michelangelo.
Madonna della seggiola, by Raphael
Madonna with the Long Cervix, by Parmigianino.
The Madonna of Port Lligat, the name of two paintings by Salvador Dalí created in 1949 and 1950.

Paintings [edit]

Madonna in Art
Madonna in Mandorla, Wolfgang Sauber, 12th century
Madonna and Angels, Duccio, 1282
Our Female parent of Perpetual Help, probably an early Cretan work, 13th or 14th century. A very popular Cosmic prototype, which was certainly in Rome by 1499.
Mary and the kid depicted as a hodegetria. Tesselated icon in monumental style, early 13th century. Saint Catherine'southward Monastery in the Sinai, Egypt
Madonna in the rose-garden, past Stefan Lochner 1448

Statues [edit]

Egyptian ivory etching, one of the earliest examples of what in later on Byzantine times was called Eleousa, or "Virgin of Tenderness". 7th century.
A roadside Madonna in Ocieka, Poland.
A roadside Madonna apse in Friuli, Italia.

Manuscripts and covers [edit]

Notes [edit]

^ According to W. H. Wackenroder, some writings by Bramante reveal that Raphael told him that he discovered how to paint his Madonnas in a visionary dream he had after praying to the Virgin.^[18]

References [edit]

^ Doniger, Wendy, Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions, 1999, ISBN 0-87779-044-ii p. 696.
^ Mary in Western Art past Timothy Verdon, Filippo Rossi 2005 ISBN 0-9712981-9-10 p. 11
^ Burke, Raymond, Mariology: A Guide for Priests, Deacons, Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons 2008 ISBN i-57918-355-seven^{[ page needed ]}
^ Johannes Schneider, Virgo Ecclesia Facta, 2004, p. 74. Michael O'Carroll, Theotokos: A Theological Encyclopedia of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 2000, p. 127.
^ "Madonna of Vladimir" eastward.g. in Hans Belting, Edmund Jephcott; Edmund Jephcott (trans.) Likeness and Presence: A History of the Image Earlier the Era of Art, Academy of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 289.
^ Renaissance art: a topical dictionary by Irene Earls 1987 ISBN 0-313-24658-0 p. 174
^ A history of ideas and images in Italian art by James Hall 1983 ISBN 0-06-433317-5 p. 223
^ Iconography of Christian Art by Gertrud Schiller, 1971 ASIN B0023VMZMA p. 112
^ Painting in Florence and Siena subsequently the Black Expiry by Millard Meiss 1979 ISBN 0-691-00312-2 pp. 132–133
^ Roten, Johann. "Crescent Moon: Meaning : University of Dayton, Ohio". udayton.edu.
^ Victor Lasareff, "Studies in the Iconography of the Virgin" The Fine art Message 20.1 (March 1938, pp. 26–65 [pp. 27f]).
^ m. Mundell, "Monophysite church ornamentation" Iconoclasm (Birmingham) 1977, p. 72.
^ Equally in the fresco fragments of the lower Basilica di San Clemente, Rome: meet John L. Osborne, "Early Medieval Painting in San Clemente, Rome: The Madonna and Child in the Niche" Gesta 20.2 (1981), pp. 299–310.
^ Nees, Lawrence. Early medieval art, 143–145, quote 144, Oxford University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-19-284243-9, ISBN 978-0-xix-284243-5
^ Werner, Martin (1972). "The Madonna and Child Miniature in the Book of Kells: Office I". The Art Message. 54 (1): 1–23. doi:10.2307/3048928. JSTOR 3048928.
^ Art and music in the early modern period by Franca Trinchieri Camiz, Katherine A. McIver ISBN 0-7546-0689-9 p. xv [1]
^ National Gallery of Fine art, Washington D.C.
^ Salmi, Mario; Becherucci, Luisa; Marabottini, Alessandro; Tempesti, Anna Forlani; Marchini, Giuseppe; Becatti, Giovanni; Castagnoli, Ferdinando; Golzio, Vincenzo (1969). The Complete Work of Raphael. New York: Reynal and Co., William Morrow and Company. p. 622.
^ Wöhrlin, Annette; Luzie Bratner; Marlene Höbel; Hiltraud Laubach; Anne-Madeleine Plum (2008). Mainzer Hausmadonnen. Ingelheim: Leinpfad. ISBN978-3-937782-seventy-six.
^ Anne-Madeleine Plum, "Kreuzzepter-Madonna--Zypertraube ind fruchtbringende Rede" and "Maria, Geheimnisvolle Rose", in Wöhrlin, Mainzer Hausmadonnen, pp. 49–54, 55–57.
^ Thomas Vocalist, 2004 The cultural complex ISBN 1-58391-913-9 p. 68
^ Mark Pearson, 2006 Italy from a Haversack ISBN 0-9743552-4-0 p. 219
^ Madonna of the Trail
^ Williams, Stephen P. (August five, 2007). "The Art Is Hitting, and Then Are the Cars". The New York Times . Retrieved ix April 2019.
^ Roberts, Kathaleen (June 29, 2014). "NM History Museum unveils rare colonial paintings of Mary". Albuquerque Journal . Retrieved 9 April 2019.
^ http://nebraskaepiscopalian.org/?cat=32&paged=two
^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah". Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN978-0196360331 . Retrieved 2011-12-08 . Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including 2 of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The campaigner ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.
^ Ellenbogen, Josh; Tugendhaft, Aaron (2011). Idol Anxiety. Stanford University Printing. p. 47. ISBN978-0804781817. When Muhammad ordered his men to cleanse the Kaaba of the statues and pictures displayed in that location, he spared the paintings of the Virgin and Child and of Abraham.
^ Rogerson, Barnaby (2003). The Prophet Muhammad: A Biography. Paulist Press. p. 190. ISBN978-1587680298.
^ Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Source (Rochester: Inner Traditions, 1987), pp. 17, 300.

External links [edit]

Metropolitan Museum: The Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages

The Madonna in Art at Project Gutenberg by Estelle Thou. Hurll (Offset printed 1897)

walkersnate1986.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_(art)